Grammar

Subject

It’s always easy to

It’s hard to

It’s important to

It gives him pleasure to

It’s dangerous to

It’s wise of him to

It does people a lot of good to

It won’t do you any harm to

It has become his habit to

It surprised me to

It made me feel awkward to

It was natural to

Part of a compound verbal modal predicate.

Part of a compound verbal aspect (вид) predicate.

1. Modal verbs: can, may, must, to be to, to have to, should, ought, will, would, shall, need.

2. Modal expressions had better, would rather.

The verbs expressing the beginning, the duration, the repetition, the end of the action: to begin, to start, to commence, to continue, to cease, used to+Inf, would + Inf.

Part of a compound nominal predicate.

predicative

part of a predicative

It is hard to please.

She is easy to deal with.

She is pleasant to look at.

The article is difficult to translate.

He was difficult to convince.

To order, to agree, to forget, to remember…

To be glad, to be happy, to be delighted…

To order, to teach, to ask. To help, to assist, to tell, to instruct, to request, to advise, to beg, to invite, to encourage…

To find, to consider, to think, to make, to feel

It

{Interesting, necessary, impossible, cruel, useful, hopeful, hopeless} to do smth.

Class nouns.

Abstract nouns

Experience of quantity (much, little..)

Indefinite pronouns (smb, anybody…)

The adjective last.

Ordinal numerals ( the 1^st, 2^nd..)

Adverbial modifier (обстоятельство)

of purpose.

of result

comparison (manner) (сравнение)

attendant circumstances (сопутствующих обстоятельств)

By the conjunctions in order, so as.

Without any conjunction.

Too hot (skilled, excited, shocked, frightened, impressed, angry) to do smth.

Clever (experienced, skilled, strong, old, sharp, brave) enough to do smth.

So cruel (impressed, careless) as to do smth.

Such a man ( a fool, a woman, a son, a student, a sportsmen) as to do smth.

By the conjunctions as if, than, as though.

The adverb never, the particle only.

To cut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell (короче говоря).

To say the least (чтобы не сказать больше).

To tell you the truth – to speak the truth (по правде говоря).

To put it mildly (мягко говоря).

To say nothing of (не говоря уже)

To be frank (откравенно говоря).

Without the particle to:

after verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to watch, to observe, to notice, to feel)

After verbs of compulsion (принуждение) (то make, to have).

After the verb to let.

Without particle to:

After verbs denoting mental ability (интеллектуальные): to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to find, to understand.

After the verbs denoting declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report; wish & intention: to want, to wish, to desire, should like, to intend, to mean; after verbs denoting feeling & emotion: to like, to dislike, to love to hate, cannot bear.

After verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow.

1. After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, to see, to watch, to observe, to notice, etc.

(only the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning is passive we use Participle II)

Note: to see=to understand: we don’t use the construction.

To hear=to lern, to be told: we use a clause of a gerund.

2.After verbs denoting mental activity: to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel, to trust, etc. After them- to be( not after expect). Perfect Infinitive is seldom used.

3.After verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

After verbs denoting wish & intention: to want, to wish, to desire, to mean, to intend, to choose.

After verbs denoting feeling & emotions: to like, to dislike, to love, to hate, cannot bear, etc.

After verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow, to suffer, to have, etc. !!! Only if the object is expressed by a noun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when the infinitive is passive( not for to suffer & to have.

After verbs denoting compulsion: to to make(заставить), to cause(заставить, распорядиться), to get(добиться), to have(заставить, сказать, чтобы).

With the preposition for, on & upon(after to rely)

With verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.(If a process is expressed Participle I is used).

With verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know, to believe, to suppose.

With the verb to make.

With verbs to say & to report( translation-неопределённо-личное предложение).

With the verbs to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

With pairs of synonyms: to seem & to appear, to happen & to chance(случайно), to prove & to turn out(оказалось).

The Subject(often with the introductory it)

Predicative

Complex object.

Attribute.

Adverbial modifier

a)of purpose

b)of result

It’s always easy to

It’s hard to

It’s important to

It gives him pleasure to

It’s dangerous to

It’s wise of him to

It does people a lot of good to

It won’t do you any harm to

It has become his habit to

It surprised me to

It made me feel awkward to

It was natural to

Part of a compound verbal modal predicate.

Part of a compound verbal aspect (вид) predicate.

1. Modal verbs: can, may, must, to be to, to have to, should, ought, will, would, shall, need.

2. Modal expressions had better, would rather.

The verbs expressing the beginning, the duration, the repetition, the end of the action: to begin, to start, to commence, to continue, to cease, used to+Inf, would + Inf.

Part of a compound nominal predicate.

predicative

part of a predicative

It is hard to please.

She is easy to deal with.

She is pleasant to look at.

The article is difficult to translate.

He was difficult to convince.

To order, to agree, to forget, to remember…

To be glad, to be happy, to be delighted…

To order, to teach, to ask. To help, to assist, to tell, to instruct, to request, to advise, to beg, to invite, to encourage…

To find, to consider, to think, to make, to feel

It

{Interesting, necessary, impossible, cruel, useful, hopeful, hopeless} to do smth.

Class nouns.

Abstract nouns

Experience of quantity (much, little..)

Indefinite pronouns (smb, anybody…)

The adjective last.

Ordinal numerals ( the 1^st, 2^nd..)

Adverbial modifier (обстоятельство)

of purpose.

of result

comparison (manner) (сравнение)

attendant circumstances (сопутствующих обстоятельств)

By the conjunctions in order, so as.

Without any conjunction.

Too hot (skilled, excited, shocked, frightened, impressed, angry) to do smth.

Clever (experienced, skilled, strong, old, sharp, brave) enough to do smth.

So cruel (impressed, careless) as to do smth.

Such a man ( a fool, a woman, a son, a student, a sportsmen) as to do smth.

By the conjunctions as if, than, as though.

The adverb never, the particle only.

By the conjunctions as if, as thought, than

Adverb never, the participle only

To cut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell (короче говоря).

To say the least (чтобы не сказать больше).

To tell you the truth – to speak the truth (по правде говоря).

To put it mildly (мягко говоря).

To say nothing of (не говоря уже)

To be frank (откравенно говоря).

Without the particle to:

after verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to watch, to observe, to notice, to feel)

After verbs of compulsion (принуждение) (то make, to have).

After the verb to let.

Without particle to:

After verbs denoting mental ability (интеллектуальные): to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to find, to understand.

After the verbs denoting declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report; wish & intention: to want, to wish, to desire, should like, to intend, to mean; after verbs denoting feeling & emotion: to like, to dislike, to love to hate, cannot bear.

After verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow.

1. After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, to see, to watch, to observe, to notice, etc.

(only the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning is passive we use Participle II)

Note: to see=to understand: we don’t use the construction.

To hear=to lern, to be told: we use a clause of a gerund.

2.After verbs denoting mental activity: to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel, to trust, etc. After them- to be( not after expect). Perfect Infinitive is seldom used.

3.After verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

After verbs denoting wish & intention: to want, to wish, to desire, to mean, to intend, to choose.

After verbs denoting feeling & emotions: to like, to dislike, to love, to hate, cannot bear, etc.

After verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow, to suffer, to have, etc. !!! Only if the object is expressed by a noun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when the infinitive is passive( not for to suffer & to have.

After verbs denoting compulsion: to to make(заставить), to cause(заставить, распорядиться), to get(добиться), to have(заставить, сказать, чтобы).

With the preposition for, on & upon(after to rely)

With verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.(If a process is expressed Participle I is used).

With verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know, to believe, to suppose.

With the verb to make.

With verbs to say & to report( translation-неопределённо-личное предложение).

With the verbs to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

With pairs of synonyms: to seem & to appear, to happen & to chance(случайно), to prove & to turn out(оказалось).

The Subject(often with the introductory it)

Predicative

Complex object.

Attribute.

Adverbial modifier

a)of purpose

b)of result

PARTICIPLE I

1.Attribute (Participle I Indefinite Active & Passive).

If we have a participle used as an attribute to a noun (in pre-position), the noun performs the action expressed by the –ing form.(a touching story-a story that can touch, a laughing girl-a girl who is laughing).

Participle I Perfect can be used only as an adverbial modifier & never as an attribute. To express priority an attribute clause is used: The student who has shown the countries of America on the map is going to his seat.

Sometimes the Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to no particular time: Taiga is a thick forest stretching to the south of tundra.

2.Predicative (Participle I Indefinite Active).

To be astonishing, to be disappointing, to be exciting, to be humiliating (оскорбительно, унизительно), to be inviting (заманчивый), to be tempting (привлекательный), to be terrifying (ужасный), to be touching.

3.Parenthesis.(Participle I Indefinite Active)

Generally speaking, judging by appearance (words)(судя по внешнему виду), mildly speaking(спокойно), speaking frankly, strictly speaking, saying nothing of, roughly speaking.

4.Adverbial modifier of clause(reason) (PI Indefinite Active,

PI Indefinite Passive;

PI Perfect Active, PI Perfect Passive).

Not knowing the topic well, he got confused.

Being impressed by the duel scene in ”Hamlet”, they were silent on the way home.

Having lost the book, the students couldn’t prepare for the topic.

Having been left alone, the child felt miserable & lonely

5.Adverbial modifier of comparison.

PI Indefinite Act

She shivered with fright as if realizing the danger.

6.Adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances(manner)

Participle Ind Act

I spent the morning on the cliff reading.

7. Adverbial modifier of time.

PI Ind Act

PI Ind Pas

PI Perf Act

PI Ind Pas

The action expressed by a participle in the function of an adv. mod always refers the to the subject of the whole sentence.

With such verbs as to see, to hear, to notice, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look, to enter, to turn, to close, to open, to cross. PI Ind Act is used to express a prior action when the action expressed by the finite verb closely follows the action expressed by the P: Seeing that it was useless to argue with him, I dropped the subject.

The conjunctions ”when” & “while” are often used with PI Ind Act to express an action in progress simultaneous with that of the finite verb: While making a tour of England, we were impressed by its beauty.

PI Ind of the verb “to be” is not used as an adverbial modifier of time: “Когда я был в Москве»=”When in Moscow”

Attribute

PII of transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательное причастие or действительное причастие of some verbs ending in –ся a broken chair (сломанный стул), a newspaper published in Moscow (газета, издаваемая в Москве). PII can be used in post-position & in pre-position (without any accompanying words). He answered through the locked door. (Он ответил через открытую дверь). They turned into the large conservatory beautifully lit up with Chinese lamps. (Они свернули в небольшую оранжерею, красиво освещённую китайскими фонариками)

PII of intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state, corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие or to an adjective. Only in few cases PII of an intransitive verb may be used attributively, mostly PII of the verbs to fade(увядать), to wither(искушать, губить),to retire, to fall/ to vanish(исчезать). Faded leaves (увядшие листья).

An attribute expressed by the PII may be detached (отделён); in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial modifier: The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted by the violent ringing of the ball. (Экономка вышла из своей комнаты, привлечённая неистовым звоном колокольчика.)

Adverbial modifier.

Of time

Condition

Comparison

Concession (уступка)

When guestonied Annie had implied vaguely…that she was anxious about her brother-in-law. (Когда Энни стали расспрашивать, она дала понять, что беспокоится о своём шурине).

It was a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the law which, if discovered, would bring them into the police court. То, что он предлагал, было ужасно: это было нарушение закона, и, если бы оно открылось, их отдали бы под суд.

As if torn with inner conflict & indecision, he cried.Он плакал, словно его мучили внутренняя борьба и сомнения.

Her spirit, though crushed, wasn’t broken-хотя она и не была подавлена, но не была сломлена.

PARTICIPLE I

1.Attribute (Participle I Indefinite Active & Passive).

If we have a participle used as an attribute to a noun (in pre-position), the noun performs the action expressed by the –ing form.(a touching story-a story that can touch, a laughing girl-a girl who is laughing).

Participle I Perfect can be used only as an adverbial modifier & never as an attribute. To express priority an attribute clause is used: The student who has shown the countries of America on the map is going to his seat.

Sometimes the Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to no particular time: Taiga is a thick forest stretching to the south of tundra.

2.Predicative (Participle I Indefinite Active).

To be astonishing, to be disappointing, to be exciting, to be humiliating (оскорбительно, унизительно), to be inviting (заманчивый), to be tempting (привлекательный), to be terrifying (ужасный), to be touching.

3.Parenthesis.(Participle I Indefinite Active)

Generally speaking, judging by appearance (words)(судя по внешнему виду), mildly speaking(спокойно), speaking frankly, strictly speaking, saying nothing of, roughly speaking.

4.Adverbial modifier of clause(reason) (PI Indefinite Active,

PI Indefinite Passive;

PI Perfect Active, PI Perfect Passive).

Not knowing the topic well, he got confused.

Being impressed by the duel scene in ”Hamlet”, they were silent on the way home.

Having lost the book, the students couldn’t prepare for the topic.

Having been left alone, the child felt miserable & lonely

5.Adverbial modifier of comparison.

PI Indefinite Act

She shivered with fright as if realizing the danger.

6.Adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances(manner)

Participle Ind Act

I spent the morning on the cliff reading.

7. Adverbial modifier of time.

PI Ind Act

PI Ind Pas

PI Perf Act

PI Ind Pas

The action expressed by a participle in the function of an adv. mod always refers the to the subject of the whole sentence.

With such verbs as to see, to hear, to notice, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look, to enter, to turn, to close, to open, to cross. PI Ind Act is used to express a prior action when the action expressed by the finite verb closely follows the action expressed by the P: Seeing that it was useless to argue with him, I dropped the subject.

The conjunctions ”when” & “while” are often used with PI Ind Act to express an action in progress simultaneous with that of the finite verb: While making a tour of England, we were impressed by its beauty.

PI Ind of the verb “to be” is not used as an adverbial modifier of time: “Когда я был в Москве»=”When in Moscow”

Attribute

PII of transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательное причастие or действительное причастие of some verbs ending in –ся a broken chair (сломанный стул), a newspaper published in Moscow (газета, издаваемая в Москве). PII can be used in post-position & in pre-position (without any accompanying words). He answered through the locked door. (Он ответил через открытую дверь). They turned into the large conservatory beautifully lit up with Chinese lamps. (Они свернули в небольшую оранжерею, красиво освещённую китайскими фонариками)

PII of intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state, corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие or to an adjective. Only in few cases PII of an intransitive verb may be used attributively, mostly PII of the verbs to fade(увядать), to wither(искушать, губить),to retire, to fall/ to vanish(исчезать). Faded leaves (увядшие листья).

An attribute expressed by the PII may be detached (отделён); in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial modifier: The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted by the violent ringing of the ball. (Экономка вышла из своей комнаты, привлечённая неистовым звоном колокольчика.)

Adverbial modifier.

Of time

Condition

Comparison

Concession (уступка)

When guestonied Annie had implied vaguely…that she was anxious about her brother-in-law. (Когда Энни стали расспрашивать, она дала понять, что беспокоится о своём шурине).

It was a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the law which, if discovered, would bring them into the police court. То, что он предлагал, было ужасно: это было нарушение закона, и, если бы оно открылось, их отдали бы под суд.

As if torn with inner conflict & indecision, he cried.Он плакал, словно его мучили внутренняя борьба и сомнения.

Her spirit, though crushed, wasn’t broken-хотя она и не была подавлена, но не была сломлена.

Attribute

PII of transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательное причастие or действительное причастие of some verbs ending in –ся a broken chair (сломанный стул), a newspaper published in Moscow (газета, издаваемая в Москве). PII can be used in post-position & in pre-position (without any accompanying words). He answered through the locked door. (Он ответил через открытую дверь). They turned into the large conservatory beautifully lit up with Chinese lamps. (Они свернули в небольшую оранжерею, красиво освещённую китайскими фонариками)

PII of intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state, corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие or to an adjective. Only in few cases PII of an intransitive verb may be used attributively, mostly PII of the verbs to fade(увядать), to wither(искушать, губить),to retire, to fall/ to vanish(исчезать). Faded leaves (увядшие листья).

An attribute expressed by the PII may be detached (отделён); in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial modifier: The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted by the violent ringing of the ball. (Экономка вышла из своей комнаты, привлечённая неистовым звоном колокольчика.)

Adverbial modifier.

Of time

Condition

Comparison

Concession (уступка)

When guestonied Annie had implied vaguely…that she was anxious about her brother-in-law. (Когда Энни стали расспрашивать, она дала понять, что беспокоится о своём шурине).

It was a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the law which, if discovered, would bring them into the police court. То, что он предлагал, было ужасно: это было нарушение закона, и, если бы оно открылось, их отдали бы под суд.

As if torn with inner conflict & indecision, he cried.Он плакал, словно его мучили внутренняя борьба и сомнения.

Her spirit, though crushed, wasn’t broken-хотя она и не была подавлена, но не была сломлена.

It’s always easy to

It’s hard to

It’s important to

It gives him pleasure to

It’s dangerous to

It’s wise of him to

It does people a lot of good to

It won’t do you any harm to

It has become his habit to

It surprised me to

It made me feel awkward to

It was natural to

Part of a compound verbal modal predicate.

Part of a compound verbal aspect (вид) predicate.

1. Modal verbs: can, may, must, to be to, to have to, should, ought, will, would, shall, need.

2. Modal expressions had better, would rather.

The verbs expressing the beginning, the duration, the repetition, the end of the action: to begin, to start, to commence, to continue, to cease, used to+Inf, would + Inf.

Part of a compound nominal predicate.

predicative

part of a predicative

It is hard to please.

She is easy to deal with.

She is pleasant to look at.

The article is difficult to translate.

He was difficult to convince.

To order, to agree, to forget, to remember…

To be glad, to be happy, to be delighted…

To order, to teach, to ask. To help, to assist, to tell, to instruct, to request, to advise, to beg, to invite, to encourage…

To find, to consider, to think, to make, to feel

It

{Interesting, necessary, impossible, cruel, useful, hopeful, hopeless} to do smth.

Class nouns.

Abstract nouns

Experience of quantity (much, little..)

Indefinite pronouns (smb, anybody…)

The adjective last.

Ordinal numerals ( the 1^st, 2^nd..)

Adverbial modifier (обстоятельство)

of purpose.

of result

comparison (manner) (сравнение)

attendant circumstances (сопутствующих обстоятельств)

By the conjunctions in order, so as.

Without any conjunction.

Too hot (skilled, excited, shocked, frightened, impressed, angry) to do smth.

Clever (experienced, skilled, strong, old, sharp, brave) enough to do smth.

So cruel (impressed, careless) as to do smth.

Such a man ( a fool, a woman, a son, a student, a sportsmen) as to do smth.

By the conjunctions as if, than, as though.

The adverb never, the particle only.

By the conjunctions as if, as thought, than

Adverb never, the participle only

To cut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell (короче говоря).

To say the least (чтобы не сказать больше).

To tell you the truth – to speak the truth (по правде говоря).

To put it mildly (мягко говоря).

To say nothing of (не говоря уже)

To be frank (откравенно говоря).

Without the particle to:

after verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to watch, to observe, to notice, to feel)

After verbs of compulsion (принуждение) (то make, to have).

After the verb to let.

Without particle to:

After verbs denoting mental ability (интеллектуальные): to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to find, to understand.

After the verbs denoting declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report; wish & intention: to want, to wish, to desire, should like, to intend, to mean; after verbs denoting feeling & emotion: to like, to dislike, to love to hate, cannot bear.

After verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow.

1. After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, to see, to watch, to observe, to notice, etc.

(only the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning is passive we use Participle II)

Note: to see=to understand: we don’t use the construction.

To hear=to lern, to be told: we use a clause of a gerund.

2.After verbs denoting mental activity: to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel, to trust, etc. After them- to be( not after expect). Perfect Infinitive is seldom used.

3.After verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

After verbs denoting wish & intention: to want, to wish, to desire, to mean, to intend, to choose.

After verbs denoting feeling & emotions: to like, to dislike, to love, to hate, cannot bear, etc.

After verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow, to suffer, to have, etc. !!! Only if the object is expressed by a noun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when the infinitive is passive( not for to suffer & to have.

After verbs denoting compulsion: to to make(заставить), to cause(заставить, распорядиться), to get(добиться), to have(заставить, сказать, чтобы).

With the preposition for, on & upon(after to rely)

With verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.(If a process is expressed Participle I is used).

With verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know, to believe, to suppose.

With the verb to make.

With verbs to say & to report( translation-неопределённо-личное предложение).

With the verbs to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

With pairs of synonyms: to seem & to appear, to happen & to chance(случайно), to prove & to turn out(оказалось).

The Subject(often with the introductory it)

Predicative

Complex object.

Attribute.

Adverbial modifier

a)of purpose

b)of result