Shell heaps, village sites, and stone implements were left in the eastern United States by prehistoric Asiatic migrants

1.  Shell heaps, village sites, and stone implements were left in the eastern United States by prehistoric Asiatic migrants.

The conjunction and is placed on a broken line between the words it connects. The x indicates that a conjunction is understood.

2.  For several generations their descendants lived along the riverbanks and subsisted on fish, small game, roots, and nuts.

The conjunction and connects the verbs lived and subsisted. The prepositional phrases for several generations are attached to the single predicate line because it modifies both verbs. Notice the diagramming of the four objects of the same preposition.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions used in pairs are called paired conjunctions, or correlatives: both… and; either… or; neither… nor; not only… but also.

Both archaeologists and anthropologists have speculated about these people.

Neither the wheel nor the horse was known to the prehistoric Indians.

Neither and nor are correlative conjunctions and are placed between the words they connect. Notice how neither is joined to nor.

INTERJECTION An interjection is a word or form of speech that expresses strong or sudden feeling.

An interjection has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence.

Look! This Indian pipe is made in the form of a man’s figure. Oh, don’t touch it!

A WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH to find the part of speech of a word, always ask you the question «What does the word do in the sentence?»

PART OF SPEECH JOB TO DO

Verb states, asks, commands

Noun, pronoun names

Adjective, adverb modifies, clarifies

Preposition introduces, shows-relationships

Conjunction connects

Interjection exclaims

Some words may be used as a number of different parts of speech.

Noun: There’s a well in Uncle George’s backyard.

Verb: Tears sometimes well up in Mrs. Simpson’s eyes when she talks of her dead dog.

Adjective: Don’t you feel well today?

Adverb: Stir the pudding well or it will scorch.

PRACTICE 5 Recognizing Words as Different Parts of Speech

Give orally the part of speech of each italicized word.

1. Bud waited within. 2. Bud waited within the house.

3. Oil your skates. 4. Put oil on your skates.

5. I’ll take those. 6. I’ll take those apples.

7. Birds eat insects. 8. Birds eat insect pests.

9. We walked across the ice. 10. We walked across.

11. We’ll paper the kitchen next. 12. Mother chose a green paper.

13. We must sand the icy walks. 14. We used sand from the yard.

15. Marie likes her amethyst ring. 16. Her favorite stone is an amethyst.

17. I’ll take that cantaloupe. 18. That’s the one.

19. The story is sad but true. 20. No one knows the truth but me.

PRACTICE 6 Using a word as Different Parts of Speech.

Write sentences in which you use each of the following word as the different parts of speech named after it. Consult a dictionary if you need help.

1.  flower-adjective, noun, verb.

2.  on-adverb, preposition

3.  tan-adjective, noun, verb

4.  beyond – adverb, preposition

5.  off – adverb, preposition

6.  this-adjective, pronoun

7.  neither-adjective, conjunction, pronoun

8.  down-adverb, noun, preposition, verb

9.  round – adjective, noun, preposition, verb

10.  fair – adjective, adverb, noun

STRUCTURE CLUES

Three excellent clues to part of speech are (1) position in the sentence, (2) endings, and (3) signal words.

SENTENCE PATTERNS

Verbs. The verb occurs in an important position in the structure of a sentence. What you already know about English sentence structure will help you identify verbs.

The basketball player-down the court.

Where did you – the camera?

Any word you supply is a verb: ran, dribbled; leave, put.

Of course many words that can be used as verb are also used as other parts of speech – for example, fall down (verb) a sudden fall (noun). Example the entire sentence before trying to determine part of speech.

Nouns. Most nouns make a meaningful pattern with is or are at the beginning of a sentence.

Desk is friends are

Nouns often precede verbs: trees grow, student read, Jim hopes.

Of course many words that can be used as nouns are used also as other parts of speech-for example, brown thread, (noun), thread the needle (verb). A word is probable a noun if it completes a pattern like one of these:

– cannot live in polluted waters.

Near the – we found a–with a–

Adjectives: Most adjectives readily fit into three common position in the sentence: the normal, the predicate, and the appositive positions. A word is probably an adjective if it completes one of the following patterns:

Normal position Two–boys caught a–fish in the – stream.

Predicate Susan is usually –.

Appositive position: The coach, – and–, spoke proudly to his winning team.

Adverbs. Most words that fit into more than one place in a sentence are adverbs. Emphasis frequently determines placement.

Cheerfully the hostess greeted her arriving guests.

The hostess greeted her arriving guests cheerfully.

The hostess cheerfully greeted her arriving guests.

Carl lifted his hand – and moved his rook.

Or: Carl–lifted his hand and moved his rook.

ENDINGS

Certain suffixes and other endings provide additional help in indicating part of speech. A suffix is an addition to a word that helps create a new word. It doesn`t guarantee that a word will be a certain part of speech, but it does provide a clue.

Verbs. Common verb suffixes are ate, en, fy, ize, and ish: pollinate, strengthen, magnify, realize, admonish.

Common verb endings, which may occur with the preceding suffixes, are ing, ed, d, and t: was trying, hoped, told, and slept.

Nouns. Most nouns have a plural form, usually ending in`s and a possessive form ending in`s or s`

Singular desk Singular possessive desk’s

Friend friend’s

Plural desks Plural possessive desks`

Friends friends`

Certain suffixes are frequently used for nouns.

– ance (ence) reliance, audience – ion action

– ation nomination – ling weakling

– craft handicraft – ment abridgment

– dom freedom – ness politeness

– ee absentee – or creditor

– er officer – ry rivalry

– ess waitress – ship friendship

– ette launderette – th length

– ics ethics – tude fortitude

Adjectives. Certain suffixes are frequently used for adjectives.

– able (ible) portable – fic terrific

– ac (ic) aquatic – ful careful

– al (ical) inimical – ile infantile

– an (ian) Bostonian – ish boyish

– ant (ent) evident – ive passive

– ary military – less careless

– ed wicked – like homelike

– en oaken – ous generous

– ern northern – some loathsome

– esque grotesque – y cheery

Adverbs. Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to an adjective: free, freely; strict, strictly; certain, certainly. (Ly, however, is not a sure sign, for many adjectives are formed by adding ly to a noun: king, kingly; time, timely. The final test of part of speech is use in a sentence.)

Common adverb suffixes are wise, ward, and long: likewise, home-ward, and sidelong. (But what part of speech is sidelong in a sidelong glance?) The suffix is no guarantee of part of speech. Always test use in the sentence.

Signal words

Certain words signal that particular parts of speech will follow.

Words That Signal Verbs. Auxiliaries like may, can, will, could signal verbs. Words like he, it, or they also signal verbs. Read the word aloud, placing he, it, or they before it, and if the expression makes sense, the word can be used as a verb.

EXAMPLE

prep. n. adj. adj. n. v. prep. adj. n. conj. v.

In 1811 the first steamboat sailed down the Mississippi and inaugurated

adj. adj. n. prep. n.

a new era in navigation.

STEAMBOATS ON THE MISSISSIPPI

A.1. The New Orleans left an enthusiastic crowd in Pittsburgh and headed into the Ohio River.

2. The boat stopped frequently along the way and received the congratulations of settlers along the river.

3. Most people still doubted the practicality of the steamboat.

4. After a suspenseful delay the boat successfully sailed through the dangerous rapids in the river at Louisville.

5. After this success the crew endured severe earthquakes and pursuit by warlike Indians.

6. Roots, stumps, and channels shifted during the turbulent quakes.

7. A fire destroyed part of the forward cabin.

8. Despite the setbacks, the New Orleans finally reached Natchez.

B. 1. The New Orleans later foundered on a stump.

2. Other steamboats soon appeared and dominated river traffic.

3. Great expense was lavished on cabins and fittings.

4. Captains took pride in the speed of their vessels.

5. Steamboat races were officially discouraged but were unofficially encouraged.

6. Boiler explosions plagued operations from the earliest days.

7. In early years the boats were constructed without plans.

8. The famous Robert E. Lee was built by this rule-of-thumb method.

SUGGESTION FOR STYLE IMPROVEMENT

SPECIFIC NOUNS Use vigorous, specific nouns.

We surprised a bird and an animal near the pond.

2. Avoid lazy, vague, «thingy» substitutes for clear thinking.

Indefinite: in the old trunk we discovered three things.

Definite: In the old trunk we discovered a bettered canteen, a letter from a Georgia lieutenant, and a Confederate bank note.

POWERFUL VERBS Seek colorful, exact verbs.

Nouns and verbs provide the sinews of the sentence.

Freddie made a face when he tasted the cough medicine.

CONTROLLED ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Use adjectives and adverbs for specific effects. Do not pile unnecessary detail upon detail by overusing these helpful words.

Ordinarily use a colorful noun (miser) instead of a weak adjective plus a general noun (greedy person). Ordinarily use a vigorous verb (scamper) instead of a weak adverb plus general verb (run hastily).

WORD FOR PHRASE Use a phrase only when the single word will add neither additional information nor desired emphasis

Ordinarily say speedily, not with great speed; the red-brick house, not the house of red brick.

PRACTICE 8 Improving sentences.

A.  For each general underlined noun substitute a more specific noun.

1.  For dessert we had fruit and cake.

2.  In the drawer there were four things

3.  At the nursery Dad bought a tree, a shrub, and a flower

4.  My brother has three unusual pets.

5.  During gym one squad played one game; the second squad played an other

B.  Using the suggestions for improving style, make the following sentences more vigorous and concise.

1.  The puppy with the brown fur walked unsteadily along the hall

2.  During our vacation in Arizona we enjoyed skies of blue and days with sun.

3.  Mel was not a cowardly person, but he was very much afraid of injections.

4.  In Holland the shoes of wood protect against the fields of mud

5.  Modern very tall buildings often look like peaks of glass.

WORD WITH DOUBLE ROLES Some words perform two jobs at the same time.

Have you ever seen my cousin’s collection of seashells?

Cousin’s plays a double role. It modifies collection like an adjective. It is modified by my like a noun. It performs both jobs at the same time. There are six common groups of words that play double roles.

1.  The possessive noun acts like a noun and an adjective. It is diagramed like an adjective.

My young brother’s laughter is a happy sound in our house. (Brother `s modifies laughter: my and young modify brother’s.).

2.  The possessive pronoun acts like a pronoun and an adjective. It is diagramed like an adjective. These are common possessive pronouns: my, our, ours, his-before a noun-her, its, and their.

The old soldiers took off their hats as the flag went by. (Their modifies hats like an adjective; it has an antecedent, soldiers, like a pronoun)

3.  The adverbial noun acts like a noun and an adverb. It is a diagramed like an adverbial prepositional phrase.

4.  The participle acts like a verb and an adjective.

5.  The gerund acts like a verb and a noun.

6.  The infinitive acts like a verb and a noun, a verb and an adjective, or a verb and an adverb.

PRACTICE 9 Studying words of Double Function.

Which words in the following sentences play a double role? Explain.

1.  My dad waited two years for his present job.

2.  An old dog’s loyalty is a priceless gift.

3.  His father worked in a manufacturing plant.

4.  On a quiet Saturday Mr. Parker can match two average days’ output of work.

5.  Ted fell seven feet from the top of the ladder but was unhurt.

OTHER PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

Every sentence has a back a backbone–the simple subject and the predicate verb. It may also have, as part of the backbone, a complement or completer of the verb. Five complements are the predicate adjective, the predicate noun, the predicate pronoun, the direct object, and the indirect object.